Basal ganglia are located in the basis of a endbrain and represent the important subcrustal connecting link between associative areas of a cerebral cortex and impellent areas of a cerebral cortex. Following structures are concern to basal ganglia: a striped kernel of basal ganglia consisting caudate nucleus of basal ganglia and shells of basal ganglia, a pale sphere of basal ganglia subdivided on internal and external departments, a black substance of basal ganglia and a subthalamic kernel of basal ganglia. In structure of basal ganglia often include also a fencing and less often - amygdala.
Infringements of movements are caused by defeat of basal kernels - the anatomically isolated group of pair subcrustal structures.
Basal kernels facilitate movements started by a bark and suppress extra accompanying movements. Striatum receives the somatotopic organized projections almost from all zones of a bark. These projections are organized in the form of parallel ways which begin from frontal areas, postcentral (somatotopic) areas, precentral (motor) areas and parietotemporal-occipital areas.
Neurocytes of striatum send fibres to the structures shaping the main axifugal way of basal kernels - to a mesh part of a black substance and a medial pale sphere.
Thus, at braking neurocytes a mesh part of a black substance and a medial pale sphere exciting influence thalamus on a bark amplifies - as promotes simplification of movement started by a bark.
On the contrary, at excitation neurocytes a mesh part of a black substance and a medial pale sphere exciting influence таламуса on a bark suppresses - that leads to braking of unnecessary movement.
On a spinal cord basal kernels have no direct output. The direct way from striatum to a mesh part of a black substance and a medial pale sphere is formed brake by fibres. Their function consists in strengthening exciting influence of kernels thalamus on those departments of a motor bark which are responsible for the necessary movement. The indirect way is organized more difficultly. Its function consists in suppression of exciting influence thalamus on other departments of a motor bark.
Thus, if activation of a direct way from striatum strengthens excitation of a motor bark activation of an indirect way - weakens.
Activity of these two ways is adjusted with the compact part of a black substance sending to striatum dopaminergic fibres. These fibres raise direct a axifugal way to striatum (through neurocytes with D1-receptors) and brake - indirect (through neurocytes with D2-receptors). Striatum sends also brake gamma-aminobutyric acid fibres to a compact part of a black substance, forming that with it a negative feedback. Finally, activity of striatum modulate it cholinergic inserted neurocytes - antagonists dopaminergic neurocytes.
Tuesday, April 14, 2009
Basal ganglia of endbrain and movement
Sunday, April 12, 2009
Anisakiasis
Scared of sushi? The Anisakis worm is a parasite that can cause nasty infections in humans who enjoy eating raw fish.
Did you know? The Anisakis worm is 2 cm long and is sometimes coughed up after ingesting it in raw or undercooked fish.
Species Name: Anisakis simplex
Type of Microbe: Parasitic nematode (roundworm)
How it spreads: Anisakis simplex has a complex life cycle in which humans are an incidental host. Adult worms are found in the stomach of marine mammals, and their eggs are passed in the feces. After the larvae are hatched, they are ingested by shellfish. Infected shellfish get eaten by fish and squid, where the larvae make their way into the muscle tissues. Ingestion of infected fish or squid by other fish allows spread of the infection. Ingestion by marine mammals is necessary for the larvae to develop into adult worms. However, accidental human consumption of raw or undercooked marine fish that harbor the infected larvae can result in an allergic reaction, sometimes causing the individual to cough up the worms if swallowed. Penetration of the worms into the intestinal tissue causes anisakiasis.
Who’s at risk? People who eat raw or undercooked seafood. The parasite is found frequently in cod, haddock, fluke, pacific salmon, herring, flounder, and monkfish.
Epidemiology: The US reports fewer than 10 diagnosed cases each year. In Japan, where raw fish is an integral part of the Japanese diet, more than 1000 cases have been reported each year.
Symptoms: Violent abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting
Diagnosis: Gastroscopic or histopathologic examination of biopsy tissue
Prognosis: Human infection is a dead end in the parasite’s life cycle. The worms are usually eliminated expelled from the intestines within 3 weeks of infection.
Treatment: Surgical or endoscopic removal
Prevention: The FDA has provided several guidelines for retailers who sell fish intended to be eaten raw. These guidelines include freezing the fish to -31°F for 15 hours or -4°F for 7 days to kill parasites and physical examination known as “candling” for the presence of worms.
How it causes disease: Penetration of the worm into intestinal tissues causes a local inflammatory immune response that results in the symptoms of anakiasis.
Immune response:After penetrating the intestine, the worm attracts white blood cells called eosinophils and macrophages and forms a mass of immune tissues called a granuloma.
Complications: If the worm is not coughed up or vomited out, it may penetrate the intestinal tissues, causing a severe immune response that resembles appendicitis.
Sources:
Anisakiasis. Laboratory of Identification of Parasites of Public Health Concern. CDC Division of Parasitic Diseases.
Anisakis simplex and related worms. USFDA Bad Bug Book. Center for Food Safety and Nutrition.
Sakanari JA and McKerrow JH.Anisakiasis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 1989;2:278. Read MoreThe problem of evaluating dysautonomia
The severity of the symptoms in people with dysautonomia are typically far out of proportion to any objective physical or laboratory findings (especially when the doctors don't know which findings to look for.) This lack of objective findings makes life very difficult. In modern medical practice, grounded as it is in the gathering and interpretation of objective data, when patients have the audacity to complain of symptoms without providing the objective medical findings to back them up, they are often written off as being hysterical.
Patients lucky enough to be taken seriously by their family doctors are likely to be referred to a specialist. The type of specialist they are sent to usually depends on the predominant symptom they are experiencing, or on the symptom that most impresses the family doctor. And the diagnosis they are ultimately given depends on their predominant symptoms and which specialist they end up seeing. Thus: Those whose main complaint is easy fatigability are likely to be diagnosed with CFS. Those who pass out are labelled as vasovagal or neurocardiogenic syncope. Those whose resting pulses are noticeably high are said to have IST. If dizziness on standing up is the chief problem, POTS is the diagnosis. Diarrhea or abdominal pain buys you irritable bowel syndrome. Pain elsewhere ends up being fibromyalgia. Whatever the diagnosis, however, a dysfunctional autonomic nervous system almost always plays a major part in causing the symptoms.
And whatever the symptoms and whatever the diagnosis, all these syndromes are real, honest-to-goodness physiologic (as opposed to psychologic) disorders – probably variants of the same general disorder of the autonomic nervous system – and while they can make anybody crazy, they are not caused by craziness.
What causes dysautonomia?
Dysautonomia (and all of the above syndromes) are caused by many different things, and do not have one, single, universal cause. It seems clear that some patients inherit the propensity to develop the dysautonomia syndromes, since variations of dysautonomia often run in families. Viral illnesses can trigger a dysautonomia syndrome. So can exposure to chemicals. (Gulf War Syndrome is, in effect, dysautonomia – low blood pressure, tachycardia, fatigue and other symptoms – that, government denials aside, appears to have been triggered by exposure to toxins.) Dysautonomia can result after various types of trauma, especially trauma to the head and chest. (It has been reported to occur after breast implant surgery.) Dysautonomias caused by viral infections, toxic exposures, or trauma often have a rather sudden onset. Chronic fatigue syndrome, for instance, most classically begins following a typical viral-like illness (sore throat, fever, muscle aches, etc.,) but any of the dysautonomia syndromes can have a similar onset.What becomes of people with dysautonomia?
Fortunately, the prognosis appears far better than it was in the days when the disorder was called neurasthenia. This is likely because bed rest is no longer considered the treatment of choice. Most victims of dysautonomia eventually find that their symptoms either go away or abate to the point that they are able to lead nearly normal lives. Sometimes, in fact, the probability that things will ultimately improve on their own may be the only thing to keep some of these individuals going.But whether the symptoms eventually improve or not, many victims of dysautonomia experience symptoms that completely disrupt their lives, and the search for competent medical assistance in rendering their symptoms tolerable is all too often a difficult one.
Read MoreMyositis Ossificans
Definition: Myositis ossificans is an unusual condition that often occurs in athletes who sustain a blunt injury that causes deep tissue bleeding. A typical story is a soccer player who is kicked forcefully in the mid-thigh, and develops pain and significant bruising.
The soft-tissues that were injured in the traumatic event initially develops a hematoma, and subsequently develop the myositis ossificans. The word myositis ossificans means that bone forms within the muscle, and this occurs at the site of the hematoma. No one knows exactly why this occurs in some people.
The common concern when abnormal bone is seen on a x-ray is that there is a tumor within the soft-tissues. Fortunately, myositis ossificans has some typical clues that usually make it easily differentiated from a tumor. If there is any question about the diagnosis, repeat x-rays will be obtained several weeks later to ensure the bone mass is a typical myositis ossificans.
Treatment of myositis ossificans consists of:
- Rest
- Immobilization
- Anti-Inflammatory Medication
Read More
Arterial hypertensia and atherosclerosis
The atherosclerosis is a scourge of 20-th century. One of factors of its progress is the arterial hypertensia. At an atherosclerosis infringement of balance of lipids in blood that is shown in increase of a level of lipoproteins low density and lowering of a level of lipoproteins high density is marked. It leads to formation on walls of vessels so-called atheromatous plaque which will consist of some salts of calcium, fibres of fibrin and cholesterol. And it, in turn, conducts to narrowing a gleam of vessels, and most seriously it concerns to vessels of heart (coronary arteries) as causes an ischemic heart disease and a heart attack of a myocardium, and to vessels of a brain that is shown in the form of infringements of blood circulation of a brain and insults.
Displays of an atherosclerosis
The atherosclerosis usually externally is not shown in any way until narrowing of vessels will not reach that degree when blood circulation in bodies and fabrics is broken seriously. For example, it can be a pain behind a brest, connected with physical activity, and sometimes and in rest, a pain in finitenesses which also are connected with narrowing arteries.
Heart attack of a myocardium
The heart attack of a myocardium is a condition at which in a cardiac musle – a myocardium – there is a sharp infringement of blood circulation as a result of full corking a gleam of one of coronary arteries atheromatous plaque or a blood clot (that happens less often). At absence of blood circulation during certain time in a fabric of a myocardium comes necrosis which already happens irreversible. In the subsequent this necrosis is replaced with a cicatricial tela.
Diagnostics of an atherosclerosis
Usually the atherosclerosis comes to light only when the conditions caused by it are marked: a stenocardia, a heart attack of a myocardium, an insult, infringements of blood circulation in finitenesses. Diagnostics of an atherosclerosis is based on following methods of research:
* The electrocardiogram. It is a method based on registration of electric activity of heart. As we already spoke, in heart there is a spending system on which passes an electric impulse from unit where it is formed up to other muscles. These potentials reflect work of heart. At the certain pathology, on an electrocardiogram those or other attributes are marked. It especially concerns anisorhythmia, the ischemic phenomena which are characteristic for a heart attack of a myocardium.
* The bicycle ergometry. This method also is based on an electrocardiogram, but carried out under the certain load when the patient receives physical activity on a velosimulator. Owing to such load the demand of heart for blood supply amplifies, and there is visible an availability of infringements of a blood-groove in heart.
* The coronary arteriography. It is radiological methods of diagnostics at which into coronary vessels it is entered thin long catheter which usually enter through a humeral or femoral artery. After achievement by catheter coronary arteries, in them it is entered opaque medium. After that the x-ray picture which helps to reveal sites of narrowing of arteries atheromatous plaque is done.
* The echocardiography (ultrasonic of heart). This method allows to reveal structural variations from heart, for example, a thickening of ventricular walls, that speaks about their hypertrophy. It is one of signs of an arterial hypertensia.
* The computer tomography. It is a radiological method which allows to receive level-by-level cuts of fabrics of heart.
* The magnetic resonance imaging procedure. The given method also allows to receive level-by-level cuts of fabrics, and especially vessels as it is very sensitive. It not a x-ray method in which electromagnetic waves in strong by a magnet a field are applied.
Treatment of an atherosclerosis
Treatment of an atherosclerosis includes, first of all, variation of a diet, physical exercises, as well as preparations for reduction of a level of cholesterol in blood. To surgical methods concern first of all balloon angioplasty when into a gleam narrowed plaque a vessel it is entered thin long catheter with inflated cartridge on the end then the gleam of an artery extends, and stent when in a gleam of an artery it is established so-called stent, playing a part of a skeleton for a vessel. In some cases other interventions, for example, shunting are spent also.
Sarcoma
Sarcoma of soft parts – extensive group of the malignant new growths occurring from primitive embryonic mesoderm (an average germinal leaf). Primary mesenchyma, a part of mesoderm, gives rise to various variants of the connecting fabric which are a part of sinews, bands, muscles, etc. From them and formation of a sarcoma is possible. However some sarcomas have ectodermal and epithelial origin, characteristic for a cancer.
The majority of cases of a sarcoma arises spontaneously, i.e. without the visible reasons, however to risk factors of the given disease carry chemical carcinogens, an ionizing radiation, a burden heredity.
The sarcoma of soft parts can meet at any age, but meets at people white color of a skin after 40 years (middle age ill - 50 years) more often. Other essential laws it is not revealed.
The sarcoma of soft parts meets reasonably seldom, frequency about 1 case on 1 million person in a year or about 6000 cases in a year in absolute expression among all population of the Earth. Death rate from a sarcoma rather high: about half of the patients who have ill a sarcoma, dies.
The most frequent place of development of a sarcoma – the bottom finitenesses. The above, the less often sarcoma is. If on the bottom finitenesses the sarcoma meets approximately in 40 % of cases, in the field of a head and a neck only in 5 %.
Besides usual characteristics of a tumor (the histological structure, the size, availability of the nearest and remote metastasizes) can be divided sarcomas on a degree malignity:
* the Low degree of malignity. Here carry such characteristics of a sarcoma, as a high differentiation of cells and small mitotic their activity, small quantity of actually tumoral cells and a plenty stromas in a sarcoma, small quantity of vessels and a small number of the centers necrosis.
* the High degree of malignity. Here carry opposite characteristics of a sarcoma, as a high differentiation of cells and small mitotic their activity, small quantity of actually tumoral cells and a plenty stromas in a sarcoma, small quantity of vessels and a small number of the centers necrosis.
On a degree of malignity define the forecast of disease, so also probability of success of treatment.
Examples of sarcomas of soft parts are:
* alveolar sarcoma of soft parts;
* angiosarcoma;
* malignant perithelial endothelioma;
* malignant mesenchymoma;
* malignant fibrous histiocytoma;
* malignant neurilemmoma;
* leiomyosarcoma;
* lipoblastoma;
* rhabdomyoblastoma;
* synovial sarcoma;
* fibrosarcoma;
* epithelioid sarcoma.
Usually the sarcoma is characterized by slow growth and painlessness during enough long time, therefore revealing is long an existing and causeless swelling (palpated formation on finitenesses, in a stomach and other parts of a body) should guard and force is urgent to address to the doctor for specification of the diagnosis. The most frequent metastasises of a sarcoma are observed in lungs, less often – in regional lymph nodes.
Diagnostics of a sarcoma is spent by survey by the expert, application of means of medical visualization, biopsy with the subsequent research of a fabric of a tumor and some other additional methods.
From all means of medical visualization (ultrasonic research, a x-ray computer tomography, a magnetic resonance tomography) consider as the most informative MRT though in each specific case the choice of a method of diagnostics should be spent individually.
Tumors biopsy can be excisional (through a cut), and also paracentetic. Opened (excisional) biopsy has advantage in case of the specified specification of already available plan of treatment.
Treatment of a sarcoma of soft fabrics mainly surgical. If radical operation is impossible, as additional methods the chemotherapy and-or beam therapy of a sarcoma are used. Unfortunately, their efficiency while is low, and in case of a tracking down of metastasises the probability of treatment endeavors to zero.
To the factors improving the forecast of disease, carry time of doubling of a tumor more than 20 days, an recurrence-free interval more than year, quantity of units less than 4. Radical removal of a tumor and metastasises in lungs is capable to give 5-years survival rate approximately 20 % to patients. The basic problem remains recurring diseases. The lowest risk of relapse – for tumors of the bottom finitenesses (less than 25 %), the highest – for extraperitoneal spaces (about 75 %).
To the factors improving survival rate, carry: age less than 50 years; a low degree malignity sarcomas; a pain in the field of a tumor; the small sizes of a tumor and its arrangement on finitenesses; absence of metastasises.
Wednesday, April 8, 2009
Intech Solution for Pharmaceutical industries
Intech Systems Group is An Accredited Distributor of Mectec Elektronik, Sweden in Russia. Solution presented was designed and manufactured by Mectec.
